What is the best English Bible translation?
BIBLE HISTORY
In the centuries following the Babylonian Exile, Aramaic-speaking Jews became increasingly less able to understand the Biblical Hebrew of the Old Testament. Thus the synagogue reading of the Hebrew Scriptures was accompanied by an oral paraphrase in Aramaic (cf. Neh. 8:8). These translations or Targums included explanatory material and reinterpretations in light of contemporary conditions and reflect the later Jewish tendency to avoid anthropomorphic representations of God as well as the divine name itself.
Many Targums developed in different settings for the various parts of the Old Testament. The most important are the Palestinian Targum (which never had a single authoritative text), which reflects the spoken Aramaic of Jesus’ time; the Fragment Targum or Targum Jerusalem II and the Targum Pseudo-Jonathan; and the official synagogue Targums, Targum Onkelos for the Pentateuch and Targum Jonathan for the Prophets, both of which originated in Palestine but whose wording was fixed in Babylon by the fifth century A.D.
The Jews at Alexandria were likewise unfamiliar with Biblical Hebrew, and in the first half of the third century B.C. the Pentateuch was translated into Greek, with translation of the remaining portions completed during the next two centuries. The Letter of Aristeas contains a legendary account wherein the translation of the Pentateuch was commanded by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 B.C.) and completed by seventy-two scholars in seventy-two days, hence the name Septuagint (LXX, lit. “seventy”); Philo of Alexandria (ca. 25 B.C.–A.D. 40) embellished the account, extending the work to the entire Old Testament and claiming its divine inspiration whereby the individual translators worked independently yet produced seventy-two identical renditions.
The Jews at Alexandria were likewise unfamiliar with Biblical Hebrew, and in the first half of the third century B.C. the Pentateuch was translated into Greek, with translation of the remaining portions completed during the next two centuries. The Letter of Aristeas contains a legendary account wherein the translation of the Pentateuch was commanded by Ptolemy II Philadelphus (285–247 B.C.) and completed by seventy-two scholars in seventy-two days, hence the name Septuagint (LXX, lit. “seventy”); Philo of Alexandria (ca. 25 B.C.–A.D. 40) embellished the account, extending the work to the entire Old Testament and claiming its divine inspiration whereby the individual translators worked independently yet produced seventy-two identical renditions.
Examination of the text, however, indicates a combination of numerous versions both literal and free and marked by considerable variance in style, interpretation of the Hebrew, and even order and contents; the latter suggests a variety of underlying Hebrew texts. The Greek-speaking authors of the New Testament quoted from the LXX rather than the Hebrew text, and the LXX became their authoritative scriptures.
Its use by Christians for proselytizing and in anti-Jewish polemics, as well as the growing Jewish dissatisfaction with the LXX for being too loose a translation and not based on the current authoritative text (it varied also from the order of the Hebrew canon, led to the more literal translations of Aquila (A.D. 130), Theodotion, and the Ebionite Christian Symmachus. Later revisions of the LXX included one from Origen’s Hexapla (A.D. 230–240) and those by Eusebius of Caesarea, Lucian of Samosata, and Hesychius (fourth century).
The oldest complete manuscripts of the LXX in existence are the Codex Vaticanus and Codex Sinaiticus (fourth century) and the Codex Alexandrinus (fifth century); significant papyri include those of the Chester Beatty collection (second-fourth centuries), Papyrus Greek 458 of the John Rylands Library (second century), and the Berlin fragments of Genesis (third century). Study of the LXX is useful not only for textual matters (including vocalization of Old Testament proper names) but for insights into Alexandrian and later Jewish theology, including its circumscription of anthropomorphisms (e.g., “power” for “hand,” Josh. 4:24) and a tendency toward spiritualization (e.g., the portrayal of the “sluggard” as a “non-religious person” at Prov. 24:30).
Various translations, known as the Old Latin versions, were based on the LXX as early as the second century A.D. in North Africa and Southern Gaul. The multiplicity of such versions necessitated a uniform translation, and in 382 Pope Damasus I commissioned Eusebius Hieronymus, better known as Jerome. Jerome began with a cursory revision of the Psalter on the basis of the LXX, then revised it using Origen’s Hexapla and later the Hebrew text. This third translation spurred Jerome’s major accomplishment, a translation of the entire Old Testament on the basis of the Hebrew text, produced 390–405.
Various translations, known as the Old Latin versions, were based on the LXX as early as the second century A.D. in North Africa and Southern Gaul. The multiplicity of such versions necessitated a uniform translation, and in 382 Pope Damasus I commissioned Eusebius Hieronymus, better known as Jerome. Jerome began with a cursory revision of the Psalter on the basis of the LXX, then revised it using Origen’s Hexapla and later the Hebrew text. This third translation spurred Jerome’s major accomplishment, a translation of the entire Old Testament on the basis of the Hebrew text, produced 390–405.
The Vulgate (so named because it reflects the vernacular of the common people; Lat. vulgaris) gained favor over the Old Latin by the eighth century, and in 1546 the Council of Trent designated it the official version for the Roman Catholic church. The hastily prepared edition issued by Pope Sixtus V (1590) was replaced by that of Clement VIII (1592), which has remained authoritative ever since.
Parts of the New Testament were translated into Syriac, an Aramaic dialect used in various eastern (West Mesopotamian) churches, during the second century A.D. Roughly contemporary was Tatian’s Diatessaron, a harmony of the Gospels. Most important of the Syriac versions of both the Old and New Testaments is the Peshitta (lit. “the simple [or plain] version”).
Parts of the New Testament were translated into Syriac, an Aramaic dialect used in various eastern (West Mesopotamian) churches, during the second century A.D. Roughly contemporary was Tatian’s Diatessaron, a harmony of the Gospels. Most important of the Syriac versions of both the Old and New Testaments is the Peshitta (lit. “the simple [or plain] version”).
The Peshitta translation of the Pentateuch, which follows the Masoretic Text and seems to have been influenced by the Targum Onkelos, may have been initiated in the first century A.D.; other books were completed in the second or third century A.D. and resemble the paraphrases of the Targums, with evidence of revision on the basis of the LXX. The New Testament Peshitta (fourth century) is a revision of the Old Syriac following the Greek text; because the Syrian church did not accept the minor Catholic epistles (2 Peter, 2–3 John, Jude) and Revelation as canonical, they are not included.
Other important ancient translations include the Coptic versions (third-fourth centuries), particularly those in the Sahidic and Bohairic dialects; Gothic (fourth century); Ethiopic (fourth century); Armenian (fifth century); and Arabic (tenth century).
II. Medieval and Reformation Versions
As long as Latin was the official language of the Western Church, there was no need for translation beyond the Vulgate of Jerome. But with the rise of nationalism in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries various efforts were made at translation into the vernacular (e.g., Alfric of Bath [ca. 1000], Anglo-Saxon; Peter Waldo [1170] and various scholars at the University of Paris [1226–1250], French). This development was fostered by the use of the printing press (e.g., J. Mentel, 1466) and received its greatest impetus from the Protestant Reformation.
Other important ancient translations include the Coptic versions (third-fourth centuries), particularly those in the Sahidic and Bohairic dialects; Gothic (fourth century); Ethiopic (fourth century); Armenian (fifth century); and Arabic (tenth century).
II. Medieval and Reformation Versions
As long as Latin was the official language of the Western Church, there was no need for translation beyond the Vulgate of Jerome. But with the rise of nationalism in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries various efforts were made at translation into the vernacular (e.g., Alfric of Bath [ca. 1000], Anglo-Saxon; Peter Waldo [1170] and various scholars at the University of Paris [1226–1250], French). This development was fostered by the use of the printing press (e.g., J. Mentel, 1466) and received its greatest impetus from the Protestant Reformation.
The first Bible translated from the original languages into a modern European vernacular was that of M. Luther (1522), a translation characterized by skilled application of Saxon and other German dialects which had profound influence on German language and literature. P. R. Olivétan published the first French Protestant version in 1535 at Serrières in Switzerland; the revision by R. Stephanus (or Estienne) in 1553 is credited as the first to represent chapters and verses. The States-General Bible, published at Leiden in 1637, became the official version for the Dutch Reformed church.
III. English Versions
The first English translation of the entire Bible was that of J. Wyclif (1380–82). Based on the Latin text, the translation is often stiff and unidiomatic English, but the work represents a concerted effort to render the Bible accessible to the common reader.
A major influence on the history of the English Bible was W. Tyndale, whose work represents the first printed English New Testament (1525, revised 1534) and the first translation from Greek to English. Likewise his Old Testament translation (1530–34) was based on the Hebrew, and the work also relied on Luther’s German translation, the Vulgate, and Erasmus’ Latin translation.
III. English Versions
The first English translation of the entire Bible was that of J. Wyclif (1380–82). Based on the Latin text, the translation is often stiff and unidiomatic English, but the work represents a concerted effort to render the Bible accessible to the common reader.
A major influence on the history of the English Bible was W. Tyndale, whose work represents the first printed English New Testament (1525, revised 1534) and the first translation from Greek to English. Likewise his Old Testament translation (1530–34) was based on the Hebrew, and the work also relied on Luther’s German translation, the Vulgate, and Erasmus’ Latin translation.
Religious and political opposition forced Tyndale to shift his operation from England to Hamburg, Wittenberg, Cologne, and Worms, and many copies of the early editions were destroyed, largely because of the controversial marginal notes which were critical of liturgical usages. Tyndale was martyred in 1536 at Antwerp, but his translation had great impact on later work (nearly eighty percent of the KJV can be traced to Tyndale) and on the eventual acceptance of the need for translation into the vernacular.
Subsequent works included a conciliatory revision of Tyndale’s translation by M. Coverdale in 1535; supplementing Tyndale’s work with his own translation from German and Latin, Coverdale produced the first complete English version in print. A compilation of both Tyndale’s and Coverdale’s work with minor alterations was issued by T. Matthew (probably Tyndale’s disciple J. Rogers) in 1537.
Subsequent works included a conciliatory revision of Tyndale’s translation by M. Coverdale in 1535; supplementing Tyndale’s work with his own translation from German and Latin, Coverdale produced the first complete English version in print. A compilation of both Tyndale’s and Coverdale’s work with minor alterations was issued by T. Matthew (probably Tyndale’s disciple J. Rogers) in 1537.
Building upon the Matthew Bible was a new revision by Coverdale using the Vulgate, Erasmus’ translation, and Münster’s literal Latin translation of the Hebrew. Variously called Cromwell’s Bible, Cranmer’s Bible, and the Great Bible, this was primarily Tyndale’s version minus the controversial notes; it was widely accepted as the pulpit Bible and strongly influenced the Book of Common Prayer. Forced into exile by the Roman Catholic Mary Stuart, W. Whittingham (assisted by Coverdale) produced a revision of the Great Bible at Geneva in 1560; this Geneva Bible (also called the “Breeches Bible” for its translation of Gen. 3:7) was based upon a high level of scholarship and was widely accepted by the common people.
Seeking to counter the influence of the Protestant translations while rigidly upholding standard Catholicism, Roman Catholics produced an often obscure translation based on the Vulgate (“the authenticall Latin”) with attention to the Greek and previous English versions. The work was begun at Douay, France, forced by political pressure to move to Rheims (where the New Testament was translated), then back to Douay (where the Old Testament was finished in 1593); it was published in 1609–10.
Encouraged by the Puritan J. Reynolds, King James I of England commissioned a new translation of the Bible based on the original Hebrew and Greek. Fiftyfour scholars (only forty-seven names are recorded) from Westminster, Oxford, and Cambridge, organized into six teams, produced the basic translation, which was then revised by twelve representative translators.
Seeking to counter the influence of the Protestant translations while rigidly upholding standard Catholicism, Roman Catholics produced an often obscure translation based on the Vulgate (“the authenticall Latin”) with attention to the Greek and previous English versions. The work was begun at Douay, France, forced by political pressure to move to Rheims (where the New Testament was translated), then back to Douay (where the Old Testament was finished in 1593); it was published in 1609–10.
Encouraged by the Puritan J. Reynolds, King James I of England commissioned a new translation of the Bible based on the original Hebrew and Greek. Fiftyfour scholars (only forty-seven names are recorded) from Westminster, Oxford, and Cambridge, organized into six teams, produced the basic translation, which was then revised by twelve representative translators.
Completed in 1611, the work was at first sharply criticized, and numerous revisions were issued from 1613 to 1769, when an official (“Oxford”) edition was adopted. Nevertheless, the King James (or Authorized) Version came to be regarded as a major contribution to English literature and still finds widespread use among English-speaking believers. A revision (the Revised Version or ERV) was published in England in 1881–85 (and with modifications in 1901 as the American Standard Version), and enjoyed brief popularity but could not supplant the KJV nor satisfy those who favored its revision.
In the late nineteenth century scholars determined that the New Testament (Koine) Greek was actually a popular rather than literary dialect, a discovery which prompted numerous nonliterary or “modern-speech” translations. Among these were F. Fenton, The Holy Bible in Modern English (London: 1895–1905); J. Moffatt, The Bible: A New Translation (New York: 1922–24); E. J. Goodspeed, The New Testament: An American Translation (Chicago: 1923); A. R. Gordon, T. J. Meek, J. M. P. Smith, and L. Waterman, The Old Testament: An American Translation (Chicago: 1927); and J. B. Phillips, The New Testament in Modern English (New York: 1958). Although some, such as The Living Bible by K. N. Taylor (Wheaton: 1971), are merely paraphrases of earlier English translations, most modern-speech versions are based on the original languages.
In the late nineteenth century scholars determined that the New Testament (Koine) Greek was actually a popular rather than literary dialect, a discovery which prompted numerous nonliterary or “modern-speech” translations. Among these were F. Fenton, The Holy Bible in Modern English (London: 1895–1905); J. Moffatt, The Bible: A New Translation (New York: 1922–24); E. J. Goodspeed, The New Testament: An American Translation (Chicago: 1923); A. R. Gordon, T. J. Meek, J. M. P. Smith, and L. Waterman, The Old Testament: An American Translation (Chicago: 1927); and J. B. Phillips, The New Testament in Modern English (New York: 1958). Although some, such as The Living Bible by K. N. Taylor (Wheaton: 1971), are merely paraphrases of earlier English translations, most modern-speech versions are based on the original languages.
The New English Bible (1961–1970), sponsored by the Church of Scotland, reflects modern mainstream British scholarships; it relies on various ancient versions including the Dead Sea Scrolls and is often paraphrastic in seeking to avoid overly literal translations of ancient idioms and constructions. Today’s English Version (1966–1976; also called the Good News Bible), published by the American Bible Society, applies the insights of modern linguistic study in rendering the text as interpreted by its ancient audience into idiomatic modern English at a level accessible to the average reader.
The most widely accepted English translation of the twentieth century, in terms of both English style and scholarly competence, is the Revised Standard Version (1946–1952). Basing their work on the consonantal Hebrew text and the Westcott-Hort Greek text, the RSV translators also consulted recent manuscript discoveries as well as the most reliable ancient versions; the infrequent conjectural emendations noted in the text were cautiously undertaken.
In 1941 Roman Catholics published the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine Version, a revision of the Douay-Rheims New Testament based on the Vulgate; this translation was itself revised after the 1943 encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu permitted translation from the original languages. Protestant scholars were added to the project after the Second Vatican Council (1962–65), and the entire Bible (including the revised New Testament translation) was published in 1970 as the New American Bible.
The most widely accepted English translation of the twentieth century, in terms of both English style and scholarly competence, is the Revised Standard Version (1946–1952). Basing their work on the consonantal Hebrew text and the Westcott-Hort Greek text, the RSV translators also consulted recent manuscript discoveries as well as the most reliable ancient versions; the infrequent conjectural emendations noted in the text were cautiously undertaken.
In 1941 Roman Catholics published the Confraternity of Christian Doctrine Version, a revision of the Douay-Rheims New Testament based on the Vulgate; this translation was itself revised after the 1943 encyclical Divino Afflante Spiritu permitted translation from the original languages. Protestant scholars were added to the project after the Second Vatican Council (1962–65), and the entire Bible (including the revised New Testament translation) was published in 1970 as the New American Bible.
The Jerusalem Bible (1966) is the English equivalent of La Bible de Jérusalem, produced in 1954–55 (and revised in 1961) by French Dominican scholars at the École Biblique in Jerusalem. Notes and introductions were translated from the French, but the biblical translation is based primarily on the Hebrew and Greek. Distinctively Christian in perspective, this version is founded on solid textual, literary, and historical study and is a work of high literary quality.
One hundred conservative scholars contributed to the New International Version (1973–78), which was intended as the twentieth-century equivalent of the King James Version. Based on the MT and the 1550 Greek text of R. Stephanus, the translation represents modern literary rather than spoken English and is cautious though somewhat defensive in interpretation.
Bibliography. F. F. Bruce, The English Bible (London: 1970); E. E. Flack, et al., The Text, Canon, and Principal Versions of the Bible (Grand Rapids: 1956); J. P. Lewis, The English Bible from KJV to NIV (Grand Rapids: 1981); I. M. Price, The Ancestry of Our English Bible, rev. ed. (New York: 1956); E. Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: 1979).
Myers, A. C. (1987). In The Eerdmans Bible dictionary (pp. 154–156). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
One hundred conservative scholars contributed to the New International Version (1973–78), which was intended as the twentieth-century equivalent of the King James Version. Based on the MT and the 1550 Greek text of R. Stephanus, the translation represents modern literary rather than spoken English and is cautious though somewhat defensive in interpretation.
Bibliography. F. F. Bruce, The English Bible (London: 1970); E. E. Flack, et al., The Text, Canon, and Principal Versions of the Bible (Grand Rapids: 1956); J. P. Lewis, The English Bible from KJV to NIV (Grand Rapids: 1981); I. M. Price, The Ancestry of Our English Bible, rev. ed. (New York: 1956); E. Würthwein, The Text of the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: 1979).
Myers, A. C. (1987). In The Eerdmans Bible dictionary (pp. 154–156). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
