What is the church?
At Acts 19:32, 39, ekklēsía refers to a large gathering in the theater at Ephesus, while at 7:38 it refers to the Hebrew community in the wilderness. Usually the Greek term represents God’s people as distinguished from others, thus called out (ek “out” and klētos “called”) of the world. Though the New Testament community of believers is intimately bound to its Old Testament counterpart, many Christians hold that the Church is a distinctly Christian concept, based on the teachings of the New Testament and especially those of the apostle Paul.
II. Biblical Teachings
A unique, though temporary, phenomenon was the establishment of the so-called household churches found in Rome (the “church in their house,” Rom. 16:5), Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:19; cf. 5:8), and either Colossae or Laodicea (Col. 4:15; cf. Phlm. 2). Most likely these comprised worship services held in someone’s home and attended by the owner and his family, his slaves, and possibly his friends.
Paul’s letters contain scattered references to Christian worship. Patterning their services after Jewish worship in the synagogue, the early Christians read Scripture (first the Old Testament and later the letters of the apostles; cf. Col. 4:16; 1 Thess. 5:27), prayed publicly, listened to a sermon, celebrated the Lord’s Supper, observed baptism, possibly sang hymns (Eph. 5:19), and at times initiated collections for the poor (1 Cor. 16:1–4).
III. Theological Reflections
Seeking to understand the biblical descriptions of the Church, Christians have formulated four distinct features (commonly called notes) of the church. They have been less successful in agreeing on the relationships between the Church as people and as organization, and between the Church and the kingdom of God. (Many wish to distinguish further between the militant and triumphant church, between the church on earth and in heaven, and between the visible and invisible church.)
A. Notes Following the affirmation of the Nicene Creed concerning the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, theologians have articulated four notes or marks by means of which the Church is to be distinguished from other human groups.
B. The Church as People Versus the Church as Organization The Christian community remains divided about the relationship between the Church as members or individuals and the Church as an organization. Traditionally, the Roman Catholic Church, in adhering to the latter position, has sharply distinguished between the teaching church or the hierarchy, and the listening church or the laity. Post-Vatican II Catholics have placed somewhat greater emphasis on the Church as people.
IV. Church Government
The New Testament rarely refers to the manner in which Christ’s Church is to be governed; even the apostle Paul mentions the various office bearers—elders, deacons, and bishops—only in his later letters (1 Timothy, Titus; Romans, e.g., is addressed simply to the “saints”; Rom. 1:7). As a result, Christians disagree about the number of special offices and their relationships. The issue of church government is further complicated by the New Testament directive that every believer is to use his or her divinely given talents or gifts (1 Pet. 4:10).
A. Biblical Teachings Just before his ascension, Christ appointed his twelve disciples to be apostles and charged them to preach the good news that he had atoned for sin and had purchased mankind’s salvation (Acts 1:8; cf. Matt. 28:16–20). Having been eyewitnesses to Jesus’ earthly ministry, they were able to support their message with Christ’s own authoritative words. Following the death of Judas, the remaining Eleven chose Matthias as his successor (Acts 1:26) and gradually accepted the divine authority that Paul claimed after his confrontation with the risen Lord near Damascus (cf. Gal. 1:11ff.). The book of Acts records the preaching ministry of Peter (Acts 2–12), Paul (13–28), and, to some extent, John (3:1, 4, 11; 8:14).
When their ministry, which included the care of the poor and the widows, proved too cumbersome and impractical, the apostles chose seven able men to provide financial relief for the Greek widows (Acts 6:1–6). These may have been the precursors of the deacons, though Philip was also an evangelist (8:5, 26ff., 40) and Stephen, an apologist (ch. 7).
Sometime later the early Church instituted the offices of bishop, elder, and deacon. Bishops (Gk. epískopoi “overseers”) were the ministers of local churches, with authority equal to the elders’ (their offices may have been the same). According to Acts 20:17 Paul considered the elders to be the ruling body of the Ephesian church; this is one of the few instances that a church where elders had been ordained is identified.
II. Biblical Teachings
A. Gospels Of the four Evangelists, only Matthew uses the word ekklēsía “church.” Following his withdrawal from the crowds to the Phoenician cities of Tyre and Sidon (Matt. 15:21) and his return to Galilee, Jesus asked his twelve disciples about his own identity (16:13). When Peter responded with his confession that Jesus was the “Son of the living God” (v. 16), the Master announced that he would build his Church with this disciple as its foundation (v. 18). In one other passage (18:17) the term “church” means a local congregation or a Christian synagogue.
B. Acts Following the resurrection, the community of believers, which consisted of the twelve apostles and a number of Jewish converts, remained in Jerusalem (Acts 1:12–14; 2:1), eagerly awaiting the coming of the Holy Spirit as promised them by Jesus before his ascension. The church expanded rapidly after Pentecost (2:47, KJV), geographically—into Samaria, Antioch (11:26; 13:1), Caesarea (18:22), and other cities of the Roman Empire (e.g., 15:41; 16:5)—as well as culturally. Gentile Christians were admitted, mainly through Paul’s missionary efforts. While Luke focuses on the founding of new churches in various regions and on their local character, he does not fail to mention the collective leadership of various churches (15:22) nor church unity (9:31).
C. Pauline Epistles Of all the New Testament authors Paul assigns to the Church the greatest variety of roles. Assuming no real distinction between the local churches (e.g., Rom. 16:1, 4, 16; 1 Cor. 1:2) and the Church as a whole (e.g., 1 Cor. 10:32; 12:28; 14:4), the apostle comprehensively terms the Christian community the “body of Christ” (Eph. 4:12, 15) or simply the “body” (4:4), the “commonwealth of Israel” (2:12), the “household of God” (2:19; cf. 1 Tim. 3:15), God’s “temple” (Eph. 2:21–22), or Christ’s “bride” (5:25).
A unique, though temporary, phenomenon was the establishment of the so-called household churches found in Rome (the “church in their house,” Rom. 16:5), Ephesus (1 Cor. 16:19; cf. 5:8), and either Colossae or Laodicea (Col. 4:15; cf. Phlm. 2). Most likely these comprised worship services held in someone’s home and attended by the owner and his family, his slaves, and possibly his friends.
Paul’s letters contain scattered references to Christian worship. Patterning their services after Jewish worship in the synagogue, the early Christians read Scripture (first the Old Testament and later the letters of the apostles; cf. Col. 4:16; 1 Thess. 5:27), prayed publicly, listened to a sermon, celebrated the Lord’s Supper, observed baptism, possibly sang hymns (Eph. 5:19), and at times initiated collections for the poor (1 Cor. 16:1–4).
III. Theological Reflections
Seeking to understand the biblical descriptions of the Church, Christians have formulated four distinct features (commonly called notes) of the church. They have been less successful in agreeing on the relationships between the Church as people and as organization, and between the Church and the kingdom of God. (Many wish to distinguish further between the militant and triumphant church, between the church on earth and in heaven, and between the visible and invisible church.)
A. Notes Following the affirmation of the Nicene Creed concerning the one, holy, catholic, and apostolic church, theologians have articulated four notes or marks by means of which the Church is to be distinguished from other human groups.
1. Unity. Even though the Christian community is primarily known through its local churches or congregations, there is a unity of faith among Christians of various theological and cultural stripes, a unity that is made possible by the dwelling of the Spirit in the hearts of believers and their union in Christ (cf. Eph. 4:4–6). This spiritual bond, often seemingly absent, provides the basis for a genuinely ecumenical encounter between Christians of diverse denominations.
2. Holiness. While the record of the Church is far from perfect, its members are exhorted to be holy (1 Pet. 1:15) and to cleanse themselves of every defilement (2 Cor. 7:1; 1 Thess. 4:3). Roman Catholics on the whole tend to relegate this note to the organization or hierarchy of the Church (cf. 1 Pet. 2:9), while Protestants generally identify it with the rank and file.
3. Catholicity. Christ’s Church is not only one church but is a Church without external qualifications or differentiations. It is meant to include all—Greeks and Jews, slaves and free (Col. 3:11), male and female (Gal. 3:28)—among its members.
4. Apostolicity. The Church’s message is based on the teachings of the apostles, the authors of the New Testament. (Paul may be considered an apostle in a broad sense.) Thus, whenever Christians proclaim the gospel as enunciated in the New Testament, they adhere to the apostolic witness as it has been preserved by the Holy Spirit. Roman Catholics also hold that apostolicity implies unbroken unity between the authority of the apostles and that of the Church’s hierarchy.
B. The Church as People Versus the Church as Organization The Christian community remains divided about the relationship between the Church as members or individuals and the Church as an organization. Traditionally, the Roman Catholic Church, in adhering to the latter position, has sharply distinguished between the teaching church or the hierarchy, and the listening church or the laity. Post-Vatican II Catholics have placed somewhat greater emphasis on the Church as people.
IV. Church Government
The New Testament rarely refers to the manner in which Christ’s Church is to be governed; even the apostle Paul mentions the various office bearers—elders, deacons, and bishops—only in his later letters (1 Timothy, Titus; Romans, e.g., is addressed simply to the “saints”; Rom. 1:7). As a result, Christians disagree about the number of special offices and their relationships. The issue of church government is further complicated by the New Testament directive that every believer is to use his or her divinely given talents or gifts (1 Pet. 4:10).
A. Biblical Teachings Just before his ascension, Christ appointed his twelve disciples to be apostles and charged them to preach the good news that he had atoned for sin and had purchased mankind’s salvation (Acts 1:8; cf. Matt. 28:16–20). Having been eyewitnesses to Jesus’ earthly ministry, they were able to support their message with Christ’s own authoritative words. Following the death of Judas, the remaining Eleven chose Matthias as his successor (Acts 1:26) and gradually accepted the divine authority that Paul claimed after his confrontation with the risen Lord near Damascus (cf. Gal. 1:11ff.). The book of Acts records the preaching ministry of Peter (Acts 2–12), Paul (13–28), and, to some extent, John (3:1, 4, 11; 8:14).
When their ministry, which included the care of the poor and the widows, proved too cumbersome and impractical, the apostles chose seven able men to provide financial relief for the Greek widows (Acts 6:1–6). These may have been the precursors of the deacons, though Philip was also an evangelist (8:5, 26ff., 40) and Stephen, an apologist (ch. 7).
Sometime later the early Church instituted the offices of bishop, elder, and deacon. Bishops (Gk. epískopoi “overseers”) were the ministers of local churches, with authority equal to the elders’ (their offices may have been the same). According to Acts 20:17 Paul considered the elders to be the ruling body of the Ephesian church; this is one of the few instances that a church where elders had been ordained is identified.
The office of elder appeared soon after the selection of the Seven, as elders were appointed at Antioch (Acts 11:30) and in the Galatian churches at the conclusion of Paul’s first missionary journey (14:23; cf. Jas. 5:14). Deacons apparently had been appointed at Philippi, for Paul explicitly greets them in the salutation of his Philippian letter (Phil. 1:1). They did not have as much authority as the elders and bishops, however.
Paul certainly recognized these three offices by the time of his first imprisonment, though he did not elaborate on their cooperative relationships. In his specific instructions to the Corinthians about church government, the apostle listed the following offices to utilize spiritual gifts: apostle, prophet, teacher, miracle worker, healer, helper, administrator, and that marked by the gift of speaking in tongues (1 Cor. 12:28).
Paul certainly recognized these three offices by the time of his first imprisonment, though he did not elaborate on their cooperative relationships. In his specific instructions to the Corinthians about church government, the apostle listed the following offices to utilize spiritual gifts: apostle, prophet, teacher, miracle worker, healer, helper, administrator, and that marked by the gift of speaking in tongues (1 Cor. 12:28).
He regards love as the greatest of spiritual gifts (1 Cor. 13) and, so it appears, minimizes the authority of the charismatics in the Corinthian church (cf. also 1:2, where he greets the Corinthian Christians as “saints” without any qualification). In his letter to the Ephesians, he presents a similar catalogue of offices: apostle, prophet, evangelist, pastor, and teacher (Eph. 4:11). Whatever Paul’s view of church government may have been, he firmly upheld the leadership of Christ over his people, office bearers and lay people alike (Eph. 1:22; 5:23–24).
B. Theological Reflections Within a few centuries the early Christians witnessed the growth of a strong and centrally organized hierarchical system, which in the West eventually culminated in the primacy of the Pope, Christ’s earthly vicar. Protestants may be divided on the appropriate degree of church government (the Congregationalists, e.g., reject the jurisdiction of a synod or larger ecclesiastical body of office bearers), but they are inclined to repudiate the Roman Catholic claim to papal authority.
B. Theological Reflections Within a few centuries the early Christians witnessed the growth of a strong and centrally organized hierarchical system, which in the West eventually culminated in the primacy of the Pope, Christ’s earthly vicar. Protestants may be divided on the appropriate degree of church government (the Congregationalists, e.g., reject the jurisdiction of a synod or larger ecclesiastical body of office bearers), but they are inclined to repudiate the Roman Catholic claim to papal authority.
Protestants may concur with Catholics that Christ builds his Church on a single rock (Gk. pétra; playing on Peter’s name, Pétros; Matt. 16:18), but in their opinion Christ is referring here to Peter’s confession (vv. 16–17) and has given this power to all the apostles (18:18) rather than to a particular succession of leaders. Further, Protestants may point out that among the apostles Paul is Peter’s equal (cf. Gal. 1:11), and that Peter himself claims only the office of elder (1 Pet. 5:1), reserving the ultimate authority over the church to Christ himself (2:4–10).
Bibliography. R. Banks, Paul’s Idea of Community (Grand Rapids: 1980); G. C. Berkouwer, The Church (Grand Rapids: 1976); E. A. Judge, The Social Pattern of the Christian Groups in the First Century (London: 1960); P. S. Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament (Philadelphia: 1960); E. Schweizer, The Church as the Body of Christ (Richmond: 1964).
Myers, A. C. (1987). In The Eerdmans Bible dictionary (pp. 215–217). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
Bibliography. R. Banks, Paul’s Idea of Community (Grand Rapids: 1980); G. C. Berkouwer, The Church (Grand Rapids: 1976); E. A. Judge, The Social Pattern of the Christian Groups in the First Century (London: 1960); P. S. Minear, Images of the Church in the New Testament (Philadelphia: 1960); E. Schweizer, The Church as the Body of Christ (Richmond: 1964).
Myers, A. C. (1987). In The Eerdmans Bible dictionary (pp. 215–217). Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans.
